Private Detectives & Present Legal System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Private Detectives and Present Legal System - Essay Example Thinking about the jobs of Sherlock Holmes and Sam Spade in ‘A Study of Scarlet’ and ‘A Maltese Falcon’ separately, here emerges an inquiry if not being an administration delegate has any effect on their capacity to fill in as agents. In these abstract works, Sherlock Holmes and Sam Spade are depicted as characters that are analysts having outstanding scholarly capacities and in spite of the way that they are not part of lawful framework, they effectively figure out how to work as a solitary element who needn't bother with help of government or any authority appointed by it. So as to distinguish if there is an association between the situation of the private analysts like Sherlock Holmes and Sam Spade outside the formal legitimate framework and the capacity to settle their cases, it is essential to distinguish if the law perceives private criminologists and agents as a lawful element. As per the law of numerous states, for example, UK, Indonesia and so forth, private agents are people who are not furnished with any authority designated to them from any administration office (Private Investigators). In spite of the fact that there have been enactments about authorizing of private examiners however there is nothing concrete in legitimate framework which can bolster the autonomous tasks of private agents. In spite of their failure to go about as a legitimate element, they are utilized by law offices, corporate authorities, industry agents, regular citizens and government for their own motivations. Evidences gave by these investigators are introduced in the official courtroom with declarations. Be that as it may, concerns like encroachment of protection and unapproved access to complex data consistently stay legitimate. In the light of this contention, obviously where private investigators are appeared as the lead characters in crafted by Dashiell Hammett and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle who can't be supplanted by any administration official because of their irreplaceable capacity to explore basic cases; these characters have no ward or lawful expert in the courtroom. Nonetheless, absence of legitimate approval doesn't appear to hamper their capacity to function as a private examiner; truth be told, they seem to work with more power because of no obligation and responsibility for their work. Characters like Sherlock Holmes, Doctor Watson and Sam Spade are nonexistent characters which are embodied as brave, insightful, tricky and separated to enthusiastic securities. These characteristics oversee their capacity to work as a private investigat or and furthermore permit them to work without being keep down by other social components. Undoubtedly, it’s their own qualities, thoughtfulness regarding subtleties and broad information which permits them to have an order on the topic, recognize concealed leads and get the intimations. These analysts are frequently observed as being selected by the law authorization organizations for help and evidently they can function as solitary power in themselves, as depicted by their creators. Sam Spade was frequently suspected by the Police for murders and different violations yet some way or another he figured out how to deceive them and complete his own private examinations while blending with crooks. Sherlock Holmes is seen as an extreme grip utilized by law authorizing organizations of that time. He is regularly discovered exploring individual issues and meddling in the lives of regular folks which just falls under the ward of law authorization organizations. Where current time h as no space for private examiners as a legitimate substance regardless of their broad use by law offices, Police, regular folks and even government, these two abstract works have figured out how to depict private investiga

Public Sector has been hit by the economic downturn and have opted to Dissertation

Open Sector has been hit by the monetary downturn and have picked to enroll fixed term or impermanent posts as opposed to recruiti - Dissertation Example Impermanent business is getting normal in Europe and the UK likewise however its effect on firm execution and profitability has not been concentrated broadly, state Camerman, Cropanzano, and Vandenberghe. The expense to an organization doesn't just incorporate the wages and the representative advantages. It ought to likewise incorporate the enlistment and choice costs, the expenses of preparing and improvement, and all the more significantly the worker commitment towards hierarchical execution. While it is hard to gauge singular worker commitment towards hierarchical execution, representative duty and inspiration would, somewhat, sway efficiency. The expanded utilization of transitory specialists by the open part has offered ascend to worries of representative responsibility and subsequently the circuitous expenses related with impermanent or fixed-term laborers. 1.2 Rationale for explore The open segment managers have an inspirational point of view toward impermanent specialists, th e inspiration being that it gives them access to explicit ranges of abilities (Woods, 2010). Forty four percent of the open area businesses even site this as basic to the accomplishment of their association. An adaptable workforce is fundamental to permit the organizations to develop. The open area needs a significant change and this requests a group of gifted experts to oversee change. Aptitudes are required in various divisions, for example, venture the board, budgetary control, acquirement, HR re-appropriating and change. Adaptable workforce has all the earmarks of being the way in to a fruitful association. Work advertise guideline influences work efficiency development through its effect on laborer inspiration and exertion. On the off chance that the wages are beneath the reasonable pay impression of the laborers, the endeavors of representatives would be diminished. The higher the pay, the higher will be the exertion placed in by the representatives because of greater expense of employment misfortune (Storm and Naastepad, 2007). An investigation of 20 OECD nations recommends that controlled work markets advance since quite a while ago run work efficiency development both in the event of transitory and all day laborers. Guideline raises laborer responsibility and inspiration. A few open part associations, for example, Caerphilly County Borough Council, Cardiff Council, RCT, Torfaen and Merthyr Councils have been utilizing impermanent specialists. Be that as it may, very little of research is accessible on representative inspiration among brief laborers in open division associations. It is henceforth hard to find out to what degree these representatives give upper hand. Consequently, with the intend to discover the vital choice that open part associations should take in staffing and HR, the exploration inquiries for the investigation are: Are representative duty and inspiration among transitory laborers legitimately identified with efficiency? What exactly degree representative inspiration and responsibility of straightforwardly utilized transitory specialists in open segment associations contrast against the perpetual laborers? Is it increasingly affordable to enlist impermanent specialists against changeless representatives considering the advantages that must be given to perpetual laborers in such associations? 1.3 Definition of terms Temporary laborers Temporary specialists are representatives who are not for all time employed yet recruited only for constrained timeframes (Entrepreneur Media, 2011). They work for a particular reason for a predefined timeframe. Inspiration Motivation as per Hardre (2003) is an inside procedure that controls and manages conduct. It has been characterized as a

MIT salutes Harry Potter

MIT salutes Harry Potter Tomorrow night, the final Harry Potter movie will be relased.   Here in Boston, the two biggest movie theaters, the Boston Common 19 and Fenway 13 multiplexes, have sold out more than 20 midnight showings.   For many, this is the end of an era that started with the release of the first book back in the late 1990s. During the Harry Potter era, MIT has celebrated the series a number of times in the way we celebrate: with hacks. Some were grand and spectacular, others subtle and fun. Heres a rundown of Harry Potter-related hacks, courtesy of hacks.mit.edu. Harrys Scar on the Dome July 16, 2005 On the morning that Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince was published, Harrys lightning-bolt scar appeared on the Great Dome. Dark Mark over the Student Center July 21, 2007 On the morning when the final Harry Potter book, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, was being delivered to the doorsteps of muggles, the Dark Mark appeared above the Student Center. Broomstick Parking in Stata Center July 20, 2007 On the day before the release of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, a broomstick parking area, complete with broomsticks, appeared in the Stata Center. It is unknown whose brooms were parked in Stata; the MIT Quidditch Team had not yet been formed. Building 9 ¾ from Harry Potter November 17, 2005 On the night of the release of the movie Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Building 9 was turned into Building 9 ¾. Doors, classrooms, and bathrooms throughout the building were relabeled to represent rooms in Hogwarts. (The number 9 ¾ comes from, of course, the departure platform of the Hogwarts Express train at Kings Cross Station.) Some offices were relabeled to the names of professors from the series (such as McGonagall, Moody, Flitwick, and Snape). Bathrooms were relabeled to be for Wizards and Witches, as appropriate. Some classrooms and the mail room were also renamed. And did I mention MIT researchers made an invisibility cloak?   And no, this ones not a hack

The Assassination Of Abraham Lincoln - 1456 Words

The United States would not be the same today if Abraham Lincoln was never assassinated on the unfortunate night of April 14, 1865. His killer, John Wilkes Booth, had a strong resent for the Union that subsequently caused a dramatic shift in history. This hatred was caused by many factors, such as his background and where he grew up, his lust for power and fame, and his mental illness. John Wilkes Booth, a master assassinator and conspirator, hoped to strengthen the confederacy by killing Abraham Lincoln. However, this murder created an even stronger opposition to the South than ever before. John Wilkes Booth was born on May 10, 1838 in Maryland. Raised on a small family farm, his family owned slaves and he received very little education. Although, as he grew up, he soon became one of America s most beloved actors. He was very famous, and appeared in famous plays in Philadelphia and Richmond (Pritchard, John Wilkes Booth). Although he never received the attention he hoped for (John W ilkes Booth), he had a good reputation all over America; this was questioned when he became emotionally unstable (Pierpaoli, John Wilkes Booth). He experienced his first tragedy at a young age, when his father died because of alcoholism and insanity. Because Wilkes grew up with slaves and having to deal with so much tragedy, it is easy to see how he grew up to be such a strong advocate of the Confederacy (Pritchard, John Wilkes Booth). By the time Booth was 20 years old, the NorthShow MoreRelatedThe Assassination Of Abraham Lincoln861 Words   |  4 PagesAppomattox Courthouse, one of America s greatest presidents, Abraham Lincoln, was shot and killed by a man named John Wilkes Booth. Specifically, John Wilkes Booth was an American play actor and a big sympathiser for the Confederacy. Booth was well known for his hatred towards the President and his crazy ideas and motives, which lead to the killing of Lincoln. Many conspiracies and theories today believed the assassination of Ab raham Lincoln was handled by John Wilkes alone, but other conspiracies believedRead MoreThe Assassination Of Abraham Lincoln1064 Words   |  5 PagesColin Shafer Abraham Lincoln’s Assassination President Abraham Lincoln was the first United States president ever to be assassinated while in office. He was president during the Civil War and had many people that did not like him. John Wilkes Booth did not like Abraham Lincoln and was responsible for the President’s death. Abraham Lincoln was born in Harden County, Kentucky on February 12, 1809. His parents were Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln. In 1818, his mother died while he was just nine yearsRead MoreThe Assassination Of Abraham Lincoln1535 Words   |  7 PagesMichael Cardenas Ritmann History 2B October 16, 2015 The Assassination Of Abraham Lincoln On April 14, 1865 at twelve o’ clock midnight John Wilkes Booth lay in his bed at the National Hotel. Three days earlier he had attended a speech given by President Abraham Lincoln at the White House. The civil war had commenced just two days earlier and the crowd was jubilant. When Lincoln concluded his speech with the the acknowledgment of black suffrage, Booth became incensed and declared that â€Å"Now byRead MoreThe Assassination of Abraham Lincoln511 Words   |  2 PagesThe Assassination of Abraham Lincoln The assassination of President Abraham Lincoln occurred on April 15, 1865, Washington, D.C. Lincoln was watching the play â€Å"Our American Cousin† at Ford’s Theatre located in Washington D.C. John Wilkes Booth entered the theatre during the play and shot and killed President Lincoln. This tragic event changed history. President Lincoln was the President of the United States during the time of slavery. He was also the president during the Civil War. Lincoln wantedRead MoreThe Assassination Of Abraham Lincoln Essay1317 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"Sic Semper tyrannis† or â€Å"Thus always I bring death to tyrants† were the famous words of Confederate actor John Wilkes Booth after he shot President Lincoln at Ford’s Theatre. The assassination of Abraham Lincoln was a tragic event that will be forever remembered in the hearts of all American citizens. On April 20, 1999 in Littleton, Colorado, Booth’s words would make a comeback during another Am erican tragedy; Columbine high school was the setting for arguably one of the most notorious school shootingsRead MoreThe Assassination Of Abraham Lincoln Essay1342 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"Sic Semper Tyrannis† or â€Å"Thus always I bring death to tyrants† were the famous words of Confederate actor John Wilkes Booth after he shot President Lincoln at Ford’s Theatre. The assassination of Abraham Lincoln was a devastating event that will be forever remembered in the hearts of all American citizens. On April 20, 1999 in Littleton, Colorado, Booth’s words became a part of another American tragedy; Columbine high school was the setting for arguably one of the most infamous school shootingsRead MoreThe Assassination Of President Abraham Lincoln Essay983 Words   |  4 PagesOne of the most tragic moments throughout all American history in my opinion is the Assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. With no surprise I am writing about certain event that oc curred leading up to, during, and after this unfortunate event. This historical event is clouded with conspiracy but I will try to avoid specifics of that particular view. Abraham Lincoln was born in a little town located within Hardin Country, Kentucky on February 12, 1809 (www.whitehouse.gov/abrahamlincoln). HeRead MoreThe Assassination of Abraham Lincoln Essay913 Words   |  4 PagesAbraham Lincoln was the 16th president of the United States of America. He was elected into presidency on November 6, 1860. Many of the southern states were unsupportive of Lincoln becoming president because he had run on an anti-slavery platform. Lincoln being elected into presidency caused states such as South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas to split from the Union. In his inaugural address Lincoln proclaimed it was his duty to maintain the Union; a month laterRead MoreThe Assassination of Abraham Lincoln Essay1646 Words   |  7 Pagesorphaned child-to do all which may be achieved and cherished a just and a lasting peace among ourselves, and with all other nations†-Abraham Lincoln, Second Inaugural Address (Great Documen ts of America 19). Abraham Lincoln was the sixteenth president of the United States and perhaps one of the most hated presidents that ever served, this hatred for president Lincoln came from his options and actions regarding the nation’s conflict at the time; the Civil War, this came after the succession of fourteenRead MoreAbraham Lincoln s Assassination Of President1176 Words   |  5 PagesAbraham Lincoln’s Assassination President Abraham Lincoln was the first United States president ever to be assassinated while in office. He was president during the Civil War and had many people that did not like him. John Wilkes Booth was one of those people and was the man responsible for the Presidents death. The following is about Abraham Lincoln, John Wilkes Booth, Booth’s plan for Lincoln, the President’s assassination, Booth’s capture and how it affected history. Abraham Lincoln was born

Hernan Cortes And The Aztec Empire - 948 Words

(A) During this time period the western exploration was set forth to find new trades routes and wealth along with trade. People who called themselves conquistadors were those of which who were looking for a new adventure and a place to discover that was new. They also wanted to spread knowledge of Christianity. Sadly this isn’t all what happened. Conquistadors wanted fame and to be able to proud themselves on the accomplishments they will make. For one example Hernan Cortes was a conquistador and he found the land on which the Aztec Empire was thriving. Instead of doing what they originally wanted which was to seek trade routes and discover new land and spread Christianity. He figured he might as well take the kingdom and obtain their wealth. Even though he did want to take their wealth they still wanted to spread the word on Christianity even though unmoral acts may be committed. Now Cortes went into the city and was welcomed as if he was the god that the Aztecs have been wai ting for, the Quetzalcoatl which was a serpent like being. The armor that he wore made it look as this. While the Aztecs didn’t worship Christianity, Cortes had no problem impersonating one of their gods knowing that there is only one true God if he believed in what he wanted to spread. Knowing that his own Spanish army could defeat the Aztecs he took it by force nothing of which was the initial intentions. Wealth and fame made him do these actions. Knowing from then on that going to foreign landShow MoreRelatedAztecs And Incas : Similarities And Differences1422 Words   |  6 PagesThe Aztecs and Incas: Similarities and Differences The Aztecs were warrior people who lived in the Valley of Mexico, with the capital at Tenochtitlan, during the 1400s. Under their authoritarian state, the Aztecs worshipped their patron god, Huitzilopochtli, among other deities. Despite their warrior tactics and developed belief system, the Spaniards conquered them in 1519. The Incas (or Inkas) were the people who lived throughout the Andes Mountains from southern Peru to central Chile. With a societyRead MoreTaking a Look at the Spanish Conquest1313 Words   |  6 Pagesdevastation and death. The Aztec civilization, which lived in what we know today as central and South America, began to come under threat from European explorers during the late 15th century. The Aztec civilization was one of the most spectacular in the world, and at its heart was the masterpiece of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. However, the prosperity and wonder of the Aztecs came to an end with the arrival of Hernan Cortà ©s and his Spanish conquistadors. Her nan Cortà ©s’ unjustified barbaric actionsRead MoreHernan Cortes Of Spain And Portugal1273 Words   |  6 PagesHernan Cortes â€Å"We Spaniards know a sickness of the heart that only gold can cure.†- Hernan Cortes During the 1490 s and 1500 s, exploration became important among Europeans, specifically the sailing to the New World. Due to the growing influx of trade networks between Europe and Asia, the idea of new goods such as spices, livestock and other resources from the New World became a large priority for trading companies. Spain and Portugal became the leaders in exploration of the New World in theRead MoreThe Second Letter of Henan Cortes to Charles V1624 Words   |  7 PagesDocument Analysis: The Second Letter of Henan Cortà ©s to Charles V The Second letters to Charles V were written by Hernan Cortà ©s of Spain in 1520. The letters were sent to Charles V to justify Cortà ©s actions of attacking the Aztec s against his superiors order. The letters that Cortà ©s wrote details the lifestyle, and culture of the Aztec s and how worshipped pagan gods. This document is a set of letters that Hernan Cortà ©s wrote detailing his experiences within the area known today as Mexico. TheseRead MoreHernan Cortes And Francisco Pizarro1424 Words   |  6 Pages Spanish Explorers Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizarro were explorers from Spain that sailed to the Americas and made many interesting voyages.They both faced separate challenges and difficulties along the way. During their difficulties Cortes and Pizarro acquired allies to help them on their expeditions. Cortez and Pizarro were both very fierce and conquered many areas. Hernan Cortes was a fierce conquistador from Spain that grew up in a noble family. In 1504, he headed out for Hispaniola butRead MoreLegacy of Rwanda1505 Words   |  7 Pagestalking about Hernan Cortà ©s, the destruction of the Aztecs, and the gold and silver of the economy. The Spanish Conquest of the Aztecs began in the start of 1519 until 1521. April 21st, 1519: 11 Spanish galleons sailed along the eastern gulf. The Galleons had dropped anchor not far from The beach of the island of san Juan de Ulua. The Vessels, led by Hernan Cortà ©s, carried 550 men, As well as 16 horses. The Soldiers got off the ship and set up a camp just off the beach. When Cortà ©s and his menRead MoreExamples of Bias Aporach to History1400 Words   |  6 Pageswhat had happened in their single point of view. The losers are nearly always left out; theyre side is almost never heard or even known to exist. The three greatest examples of this bias approach to history are the actions of Hernà ¡n Cortes and the destruction of the Aztec civilization and Tenochticlan, Ramses the second and his rule of Egypt and conquest of the Middle East, and lastly Julius Caesar and his domination of both Rome and the Mediterranean Sea. These three men and their actions are primeRead MoreThe Discovery Of The New World1075 Words   |  5 PagesSince the arrival of Columbus to the New World in 1492, it began a new era for the Spanish Empire. During this time Spain successfully conducted the Reconquista back home and were power hungry for more land to conquer to keep the momentum going. The early explorations would lead to bigger conquest and fortunes for the Spaniards. After the reunification of Spain with Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand, they financed the expedition for the Genoese explorer, Christopher Columbus, for trading routesRead MoreWhat Did The Spanish Didn t Go From New Land For Work?1340 Words   |  6 Pagestheir country and brought honor to their King but what most people forget is the evil things they did to the Aztecs.They didn t come to Mexico for a peaceful exploration but to finish their three objectives; force their religion on the Aztecs, conquer the Aztecs by being cruel to them, and gain supplies from them for money and to be recognize as a good Spaniard. Their exploration was filled with greed. The Age of Discovery started in Europe during the 15th century. Before this era many EuropeansRead MoreThe Aztec Empire Essay1174 Words   |  5 PagesWho were the Aztecs? Why were they considered to be an empire even greater than the Romans? And how was Hernan Cortes able to defeat them? These are some of the questions that people ask about these indigenous people. These people are known as the Aztecs but originally called themselves Mexica. They came to Mexico in the early thirteenth century and from there they started to develop a social structure and government consisting of priests, kings, peasants, and soldiers. Besides having a very organized

McDonough’s Purpose in Writing the Book Free Essays

Of all of the events in American history, few would argue that the Civil War is the most debated, written about and discussed event. While it is beyond the scope of this research to pinpoint the all of the reasons why the Civil War still captures the imagination of historic scholars to this very day, but it is possible to take one of the many books written on the topic and provide a thorough review. In this research, Shiloh-In Hell before Night by James L. We will write a custom essay sample on McDonough’s Purpose in Writing the Book or any similar topic only for you Order Now McDonough will be the work reviewed from several different vantage points. McDonough’s Purpose in Writing the Book. It would be easy to simply say that McDonough’s purpose in writing his book was to depict the people and events of one of the bloodiest battles of the Civil War, which took place in the Tennessee Valley on April 6, 1862, when hundreds of thousands of Union and Confederate troops clashed, fought and died (McDonough, 1977). Upon a closer reading of the work, however, a larger purpose becomes apparent. Within the pages of the book, McDonough uses the writing style of the great fiction writers of all time to create an historic account that reads like a novel. Moreover, through the use of quotes from many of those who were involved in the battle, these people come back to life in a way and tell their own story, lending credibility and accuracy to the work. The Main Argument of the Work James L. McDonough’s main argument in this work is that the Civil War was not just a series of battles, wins and losses, but rather was a struggle for opposing people to try to direct a way of life for everyone to follow. He does this by using actual quotes from the main individuals involved in the battle of Shiloh which show how they felt and what lengths they would go to in order to put forth those beliefs. Was the Goal of the Book Accomplished? Generally speaking, the goal of the book was accomplished in that McDonough was able to make the point that even in defeat, there is honor to a certain extent, and also that the cause of the Confederate States of America was as much a commitment to the preservation of a way of life that had existed for generations and hundreds of years as much as it was a fight to break away from a government that was seen as oppressive and dictatorial. McDonough, in his vivid characterizations and flowing style, makes the point that even when a decisive victory is not gained, even the act of fighting for one’s beliefs is in itself a form of victory. By doing this, McDonough shows that the Civil War was a far more complex event in American history than simply two sides fighting to win battles. This most certainly contributes to the ongoing fascination with the Civil War that was mentioned as this research began, and it is authors like McDonough that both satisfy the reader’s thirst for more information about the Civil War and sparks additional interest at the same time, which is quite a feat for any book about any historic period. Strengths/Weaknesses of the Book In fairness, McDonough’s book has its share of relative strengths and weaknesses which became clear in reading the book and are worthwhile to present and discuss in this review. An overall strength of the book which became apparent from the very first paragraph was the realization that this was not the usual, dry historic text. Rather, McDonough took on a narrative style that made the presentation of the necessary elements of any historic account something that the reader would in fact look forward to reading, and as such, the more that was read, the more that was learned. In this sense, it could also be cited as a strength that this book serves to educate, as well as entertain the reader. Weaknesses also exist in the book. Understandably, McDonough wrote the book from a southern point of view, and while there is no way to ethically change the result of the battle- a Confederate retreat which can fairly be seen in retrospect as a defeat- it is fair to say that McDonough’s narrative style and attempt to make the key players in the battle come to life tends to glorify even those who ultimately failed to perform up to standards in the battle, and of course, in the end, were not victorious. This is not to say that McDonough distorted any facts, but he did tend in some ways to over dramatize unsuccessful leaders like Beauregard and others. Is McDonough’s Book a Valuable Contribution to the Study of the American Civil War? In conclusion, the remaining point to be discussed is whether or not McDonough’s book is a valuable contribution to the study of the Civil War. The point has already been made that the book is able to both provide information and spark a desire to learn more, all in an entertaining and vivid style. Also, it was discussed that McDonough was able to convey something far beyond history- the mindset and tradition which led to the Civil War and inspired thousands on both sides of the conflict to make the ultimate sacrifice for their beliefs. Based on all of this, it can fairly be said that this book is a valuable study of the Civil War, for anytime that facts and figures from the past can be brought to life and spark the imagination of the reader, the work is most worthwhile, and this work is no exception. Therefore, in closing, let it be said that Shiloh-In Hell before Night, decades after its publication, is still deserving of high continued review. Works Cited McDonough, James Lee. 1977. Shiloh: In Hell before Night. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. How to cite McDonough’s Purpose in Writing the Book, Papers

Medieval Castles In 1494 The Armies Of The French King, Charles VIII,

Medieval Castles In 1494 the armies of the French king, Charles VIII, invaded Italy to capture the kingdom of Naples. They swept through the country and bombarded and destroyed many castles. This invasion signaled the end of the castle as a stronghold of defense. For centuries it had been the dominant fortification in Western Europe for the defense of kings, nobility, and townspeople. Ancient cities were often walled to keep out invaders, and within the walls there was usually a citadel, a strongly built fortification occupying the highest or militarily most advantageous position. A castle is much like such a walled city and its citadel contracted into a smaller space. Castles were basically fortified locations. The word itself comes from the Latin castellum. Up to the 6th century fortifications were primarily communities in which most of the population lived. But in the middle of the 6th century, the armies of the Byzantine Empire began to build strong forts as defensive positions. For the next few centuries this castle building was confined to the Byzantine Empire, but later hordes of Islamic warriors who swept out of Arabia to conquer the Middle East, North Africa, and much Byzantine territory also started building such forts. Western Europe, in the depths of the Dark Ages from the 5th through the 9th century, had no such works. But late in the 9th century, as local lords and kings began to consolidate power, castle building began probably in France. Once begun, castle building spread rapidly to other areas. But it was not until the 12th and 13th centuries, after the Crusaders returned from their wars against Islam in Palestine, that castles as imposing as those of the Byzantine or Islamic empires were constructed in Europe. Many of the stone castles of the late Middle Ages still stand. Some are tourist attractions, in various states of repair, along the Rhine River from Mainz to Cologne in Germany, dotted about the French countryside, or perched on hillto ps in Spain. The original French castles had been built on open plains. Later ones, however, were situated on rocky crags, at river forks, or in some position where advancing enemies would find approach extremely difficult, if not impossible. The fortifications became more elaborate with time, with considerable attention paid to making the living quarters more comfortable. A typical castle was usually guarded on the outskirts by a surrounding heavy wooden fence of sharp-pointed stakes called a barbican. It was intended to prevent surprise attacks by delaying the advance of assailants and giving those within the castle compound time to prepare to resist and attack. Inside the barbican stretched the lists, or wards: strips of land that encircled the castle. The lists served as a road in time of peace and as a trap in war; once within the barbican the enemy was in the range of arrows shot from the castle walls. In peacetime the lists also served as an exercise ground for horses and o ccasionally as tournament grounds. Between the lists and the towering outer walls of the castle itself was the moat, usually filled with water. Across it stretched a drawbridge, which was raised every night. At the castle end of the drawbridge was the portcullis, a large sliding door made of wooden or iron grillwork hung over the entryway. It moved up and down in grooves and was raised every day and lowered at night. In times of danger it blocked the way to the heavy oak gates that served as doors to the castle compound. These gates were so large that they were rarely opened except on ceremonial occasions. A smaller door was built into one of them to provide easy entrance and exit for those who lived in the castle. A person known as the chief porter was charged with the responsibility of making sure that only friends passed through. The outer walls of most castles were massively thick, sometimes as much as 15 feet. At intervals were high towers, each a small fort in itself with pr ovisions to withstand a long siege. When an attack was expected, wooden balconies were hung over the outer edges of the wall. During an attack, large stones were thrown or